丁連財的比較宗教學 Comparative Religions 基礎知識講義

丁連財淺談三大一神論宗教的歷史源流與發展（比較宗教學 Comparative Religions 基礎知識講義）

前言：國際新聞與學術研究常見與宗教相關的事件、現象與主題，尤其以西方為然。在閱讀相關文章或書籍時，若具備基礎知識，就容易進入主題、抓到重點。美國紐約時報(New York Times)、英國經濟學人週刊(the Economist)和德國明鏡周刊(der Spiegel，有以英文發行的國際版)這些西方與全球菁英知識份子常常閱讀的特優傳媒，對台灣學員的英語文程度與知識廣度精度密度深度構成嚴格考驗。其內容包括各門各類的文章，其英文可供練習特優級的閱讀與寫作，其知識與觀點可大幅提升並拓展視野與見解，經常會有與宗教相關的文章。 

***常見議題

宗教衝突（譬如：Struggle for the right to Jerusalem,   Judaism vs. Islam in the Middle East,   Christianity vs. Islam in Europe and Africa, Islam vs. Buddhism in Myanmar,  Islam vs. Hinduism in India,  Hinduism vs. Buddhism in Sri Lanka, ……）；

政教鬥爭 (Struggle for Power between Political and Religious leaders；Pope vs. Emperor and King; Archbishop vs. Nobles);  

政教分離（Separation of Church and State；Separation of Mosque and State; Separation of Synagogue and State); 

教派紛爭（譬如：Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Evangelical, Fundamentalist, Sunni, Shiite, Sufi……）； 

宗教與生命倫理爭議(譬如：abortion, euthanasia, assisted suicide, surrogate mother, premarital sex, extramarital affair, homosexual, same-sex marriage, death penalty……)； 

宗教與社會議題（譬如：priest celibacy, no female priest, priest pedophile, female genital mutilation, honor killing, covering for female including veil, scarf, burqa; equal right for women in Islam, religious fanaticism, religious terrorism……）等。  

***比較宗教Comparative Religion中的西方宗教（相對於印度教、錫克教、佛教、道教、神道教而言，在西方的宗教）： 

猶太教、基督教、伊斯蘭

Arabs vs. Jews；Muslims vs. Christians; Islam vs. Judaism; Judaism vs. Christianity; Christianity vs. Islam  

註：以下若同一名字有前後兩種譯名，前者為基督新教 (Protestant Churches，就是台灣習稱的基督教)聖經譯名，後者為可蘭經譯名。  

猶太人與阿拉伯人是共同祖先的後代，都屬於閃族、閃米特族 (Semite)，即聖經與可蘭經所載大洪水後僅存的挪亞 (Noah) 家族中的長子閃（Shem）的後代；他們都認定是 Abraham=Ibrahim（亞伯拉罕、易卜拉欣）的後裔。 **Abraham（亞伯拉罕、易卜拉欣）+元配 Sarah（撒拉）-->Isaac（以撒、易司哈各）--->Jacob（雅各、葉而孤白－＞後來改名為Israel 以色列、伊斯拉衣)--->Jews（猶太人系）; 

**Abraham+侍妾 Haggar (夏甲、哈澤爾)--->Ishmael（以實瑪利、伊斯瑪儀、易司馬衣）--->Arabs（阿拉伯人系）;

***分歧：有關亞伯拉罕獻子予神，得神喜悅，改以羊為祭，而得蒙祝福的記載（穆斯林宰牲節 Eid al-Adha－忠孝節－由來），舊約聖經與可蘭經的差異很大：猶太人堅稱被獻祭的是嫡長子以撒，上帝祝福的是猶太人；阿拉伯人堅稱獻祭的是庶長子伊斯瑪儀，上帝祝福的是阿拉伯人，是猶太人竄改史實。

***一些常見譯名

Allah 阿拉、安拉，Jehovah 耶和華，Gabriel 加百列、哲布瑞萊，Michael 米迦勒、閔卡依來 (the same archangels in Torah and Quran)，David 大衛、達味、達伍德，Goliath 哥利亞、迦路特，Solomon 所羅門、蘇萊曼 (the same figures in Scripture and Quran)；Koran or Quran古蘭經、可蘭經 (114 suras, 總共有114章，依長短編排)；Torah 摩西五經、妥拉 (the first five books in the Scriptures, Part of the Old Testament)；Sabbath 安息日；Jumah 主麻、聚禮日，Ramadan 齋戒月、來默臧（齋戒月接著就是開齋節Eid al-Fitr），Qilba望向麥加，Kaaba 黑石天房（伊斯蘭教的最核心敬拜處所），Sharia 沙里亞、伊斯蘭刑法。 

***猶太教與伊斯蘭有相同習俗與倫理 The same practices and ethics 

若屬於猶太教與伊斯蘭教最保守、極端正統、基本教義派者，都奉行 no usury 不收利息、不可放高利貸；no pork 不吃豬肉；no drink 不喝酒；no eye contact with a woman other than your wife or daughter 除妻女之外，男人眼神不與其他女子接觸（這類猶太男子幾乎不出門，若有女子來訪，則以背對之；伊斯蘭教則以頭巾、面紗或更完整的頭罩施之於女子）；no idol 不拜偶像；no icon 不立聖像；no fornication 不可有婚前性行為；no adultery 不可有婚外情、不可通姦；eating no blood 不可吃帶血食物；stone to death 砸石處死通姦者。

***猶太教、基督教、伊斯蘭的基本異同

*猶太教：Adam (亞當、阿丹)-->Noah (挪亞、諾厄)-->Abraham (亞伯拉罕、易卜拉欣)--->Moses (摩西、梅瑟、穆薩、母撒)--->猶太教徒（上帝選民）；

猶太教經典：《希伯來語聖經》(Hebrew Bible),或稱為 the Scriptures，希伯來語音譯為《塔納赫》（Tanakh，有譯作《泰納克》或《泰那克》）。《希伯來語聖經》與後來的基督教稱之為「舊約聖經」內容大致一樣但非完全相同，尤其是在某些書卷的屬性認定和在正典中的排列先後次序有別；

*基督教：Adam (亞當、阿丹)-->Noah (挪亞、諾厄)-->Abraham (亞伯拉罕、易卜拉欣)--->Moses (摩西、梅瑟、穆薩、母撒)-->Jesus (耶穌、爾薩)－＞基督徒（上帝選民）；

基督教經典：《聖經》(the Bible)「舊約＋新約聖經」(Old and New Testaments)； 

*伊斯蘭：Adam (亞當、阿丹)-->Noah (挪亞、諾厄)-->Abraham (亞伯拉罕、易卜拉欣)--->Moses (摩西、梅瑟、穆薩、母撒)-->Jesus (耶穌、爾薩)－＞Mohammed（穆罕默德）－＞穆斯林（上帝選民）；

伊斯蘭經典：《可蘭經》(Koran or Quran)，天使傳給先知穆罕默德，其中有部分與《聖經》內容相同或類似，或同一主軸但走向與結果不同。

***獨一神論 

三個宗教都自稱奉行獨一神論 monotheism，而且都認同 Abraham (亞伯拉罕、易卜拉欣)，故被稱為亞伯拉罕宗教 (Abrahamic religions)，也稱為閃族宗教 (Semitic religions)；基本上，猶太教與伊斯蘭對於獨一真神，因為語言不同還有成為獨一神論之前的民族歷史與習俗有異，而有不同稱呼（耶和華、雅威、伊羅興、安拉、阿拉……），但依希伯來聖經與可蘭經比照，兩者敬拜的是同一位神而且神的屬性相同。 

猶太教是民族宗教，繼承其傳統但有所創新改造的基督教則是普世宗教 (Universal Religion)；基督教打破民族界線，認為所有信仰獨一真神者不必恪守猶太民族習俗；伊斯蘭也是普世宗教。

***對耶穌的的認定

*猶太教：凡人，約瑟與瑪利亞的長子，以工匠為業，後來成為宗教狂熱分子，妄稱自己為彌賽亞、救世主，行為褻瀆神，是假的彌賽亞；被判處死刑，釘十字架之後死亡，並由追隨者裹布置埋墓穴，但屍體被追隨者盜走，而後宣稱已經復活； 

Judaism regards Jesus as only the eldest son of flesh and blood from ordinary people Mary and Joseph. The notion that Jesus was born of asexual reproduction due to the help of Holy Spirit in conception perhaps is the prototype idea of human cloning. Jesus was crucified because he was suspected of destabilizing the rule of the Romans and convicted of treason. He surely died and was buried. Resurrection is a rumor circulated by his followers. Jesus is neither the first nor the last to act in the name of Messiah. The number of the Messiahs who failed has increased to hundreds. Judaism does not accept Mohammed as a prophet. Judaism only recognizes the Scriptures, especially the Pentateuch, that are called the Old Testament in the Bible of Christians. Judaism does not accept the New Testament.

*基督教：聖子，具完整神人二性，道成肉身降世，以釘十字架流血為人贖罪，使人與神得以修好，是救世主，是彌賽亞；在週五 (Good Friday，受難日)被釘死後裹布置埋墓穴，但信徒於周日（Easter，復活節）前往墓穴，卻不見屍體，有天使出現，告知耶穌已經復活； 

Christianity embraces Jesus as Son of God, a Savior, a Messiah, an incarnation of God presented to humanities as a sacrifice to appease God’s wrath that could have led to the destruction of the world otherwise. Christians believe Jesus was crucified to atone for the sins of human beings against God and offered the precious access to repent and redemption. Jesus was nailed to death on the cross and buried in a tomb but he came back to life and appeared in front of his disciples before ascending to the Heaven. His second coming will be accompanied by the Day of the Judgment, the end of the world.

*伊斯蘭：一位好人、好老師、上帝使者，但地位低於穆罕默德；耶穌絕對不具有神性，如果說耶穌是神，就變成多神論，而非獨一神論。耶穌確實被釘十字架，但只是昏迷而未死去，有人救了他，治好傷勢之後，就隱姓埋名與妻子和子女過著的卑微生活。

Islam accepts Jesus as a good man and a messenger from God but deems him minor to the last and greatest prophet Mohamed. The Archangel Michael reveals the words of Allah (“God” in Arabic) to him and the Holy Book Quran is the collection of all the revelations. Quran contains some stories, legends, figures, teachings, rules, and narratives in the Old Testament and the New one but consists of many parts that are different from what the Bible says. Islam does not accept Jesus as the son of God. Muslims accept that he is a son of Mary and he was crucified. But he fainted on the cross rather than died there. Someone saved him and after recovery from the wound, he went back to an obscure life living with his wife and children. The purpose of Jesus’ life in this world is to convert more people to the only true God and submit to His teachings. Christian notion that Jesus is part of Trinity composing Holy Father, Holy Son, Holy Spirit is a serious violation of Monotheism.

*基督教會歷史與基督教義史和基督教神學史的耶穌屬性與定位問題：基督論 

猶太教與伊斯蘭對耶穌的救世主或神的的地位都表示反對，連基督教內部也是紛爭四起，這就是所謂基督論 (Christology)－對耶穌的認定與討論。在歷史上出現過很多的論點，譬如：基督唯人論、『嗣子論』(Adoptionism)、幻影說（Docetism）、大天使米迦勒裝扮論、神格惟一論、基督一性論、基督一志論等等。在此僅簡述幾種，其他可詳見教會歷史與神學史的書籍： 

『亞流主義』(Arianism)，乃第四世紀亞歷山大城教會的長老亞流(Arius)所倡議，他主張神的獨一與超越，並將耶穌的神性打折扣，認為基督為神所造的『次神』(Demigod)：基督只是一個受造物，但有參與到於上帝（聖父）的道和智慧，而被賦與『道』(Logos) 的稱謂。十九世紀時，『摩門教』（『摩爾門教』Mormonism、『耶穌基督後期聖徒教會』The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints）、『耶和華見證人會』（Jehovah's Witnesses）等『非正統基督徒團體』、『異端信仰基督徒團體』、『類基督徒團體』，都帶有『亞流主義』色彩，都認為耶穌不是真神。1954年創始於韓國，而後在日本、美國乃至其他國家傳開的『世界基督教統一神靈協會』（『統一教』Tong-ilgyo, Unification Church)，則認為耶穌未完成救贖世人的工作，必須由統一教主文鮮明（문선명，Sun Myung Moon）來延續。 

***摩爾門教：Adam (亞當、阿丹)-->Noah (挪亞、諾厄)-->Abraham (亞伯拉罕、易卜拉欣)--->Moses (摩西、梅瑟、穆薩、母撒)-->Jesus (耶穌、爾薩)－＞Joseph Smith, Jr. (約瑟·斯密)-->摩爾門教、後期聖徒（上帝選民）； 

摩爾門教經典：《聖經》(the Bible)+《摩爾門經》(Book of Mormon)

***統一教：Adam (亞當、阿丹)-->Noah (挪亞、諾厄)-->Abraham (亞伯拉罕、易卜拉欣)--->Moses (摩西、梅瑟、穆薩、母撒)-->Jesus (耶穌、爾薩)－＞Sun Myung Moon (文鮮明)->統一教徒（上帝選民）；

統一教經典：《聖經》(the Bible)+《原理講論》(Divine Principle) 

『幻影說』、『看似人主義』：此派認為耶穌是個完全的神，不可能成為肉身。耶穌的本體就是上帝，耶穌在人間的一切活動，包括十字架上受苦以及而後的復活、升天，都只是化身及假象，只是上帝投射在人間的一個影子、幻象或幻影形體，因而反對『道成肉身』(incarnation)的說法。

神格惟一論』(Monarchianism)：分為『動力神格惟一論』(Dynamic Monarchianism)和『形態神格惟一論』(Modalistic Monarchianism或Modalism)，前者否認基督的神性，又稱『嗣子論』(Adoptionism)；後者強調耶穌的神性，而以耶穌為父顯現的一暫時形態。『嗣子論』反對敬拜耶穌，認為耶穌雖是出於童女，但在受洗前就是常人，雖然在受洗時聖靈降臨在祂身上而成為一位被灌入神之生命之人(inspired man)，被賦予神的能力，但還不是神，也不是成為肉體之神。耶穌只是被神收為嗣子，並賦予聖靈為其盡職時的超然能力。

『一神論派』、『一位一體神論派』（Unitarianism）、『反三位一體論』(Antitrinitarianism)：認定上帝為單一個體，拒絕聖父聖子聖靈『三位一體論』(Trinity)；認定只有聖父是神，聖子聖靈都不是。美國的『一位一體一神普救派』（Unitarian Universalism）是其一。

『靈智派』、『諾斯底主義』（Gnosticism)：源自希臘文的『諾斯底』(Gnostics)，意為『知識之學』。該派所說的『救恩』，是從天上光明世界來的救主把『祕密的知識』帶到地上，使處於邪惡世界的人類內質中的神聖光種得以釋放出來，而對抗邪惡。無論是物質的身體或是物質的世界，都是腐敗而邪惡的，人在物質範圍的黑暗和情慾中無法自拔。但是基督是偉大的，因此祂不可能有肉體的身體，因為肉體是物質的、邪惡的。因此，指耶穌是神的『道成肉身』的說法嚴重錯誤。

以基督信仰界的歷屆大會辯論表決為『正統』的內容為判準，還有很多其他的『異端學說』。但是，即使有神學與教派被判定為異端，而被開除逐出教門，但是仍不服氣，就遠離他鄉傳教。譬如傳到大唐帝國的『景教』，就是被判定為異端的『聶斯托流思想』(Nestorianism)。 

***基督教神學研究的一些分科分項：（有些字若知道字源一下就懂了，不需要查字典）

系統神學－  

聖經研究 Biblical Studies--the nature and means of its inspiration, etc.; including 詮釋學hermeneutics (the development and study of theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts and the topic of Biblical law in Christianity)； 

神論 Theism-- 

宇宙論 cosmology-- 

基督論 Christology—the study of Jesus Christ, of his nature(s), and of the relationship between his divinity and humanity; 

聖靈論 Pneumatology—the study of the Holy Spirit, sometimes also 'geist' as in Hegelianism and other philosophico-theological systems; 

三一論 Trinitarianism-- 

教會論 Ecclesiology (sometimes a subsection of missiology)—the study of the Christian Church, including the institutional structure,  sacraments and practices (especially the worship of God); 

瑪利亞論 Mariology— the area of theology concerned with Mary, the Mother of Christ; 

宣教學Missiology --(sometimes a subsection of ecclesiology)—God's will in the world, missions, evangelism, etc.; 

人論、神學人類學--Theological anthropology—the study of humanity, especially as it relates to the divine- 

罪論 Hamartiology--- 

救贖論 Soteriology—the study of the nature and means of salvation. May include Hamartiology (the study of sin), Law and Gospel (the study of the relationship between Divine Law and Divine Grace, justification, sanctification; 

末世論 Eschatology—the study of the last things, or end times. Covers subjects such as death and the afterlife, the end of history, the end of the world, the last judgment, the nature of hope and progress, etc. ; 

護教學 Apologetics--  

***與比較西方宗教有關的英文彙(有字源學概念者，前四行用字首字根字尾的訣竅很容易記憶)

atheism  monotheist  ditheism  polytheism  pantheism  agnosticism henotheism  shamanism  paganism  animism

heliolatry  selenolatry  demonolatry  hagiolatry  pyrolatry  hydrolatry dendrolatry  xylolatry  litholatry  geolatry  iconolatry  idolatry gynecolatry  androlatry  phallolatry  parthenolatry  juvenolatry   necrolatry  physiolatry

Bibiloclast  idoloclast  iconoclast  mythoclast

Passion  Resurrection  Epiphany  Ascension  Advent  Adventist  Unitarianism Trinity  Trinitarianism  Church  Denomination  Sect  Cult

Nestorianism  Anabaptism 

Roman Catholic Church   Eastern Orthodox Church   Protestant Church   Anglican Church    Lutheran Church    Calvinist(Presbyterian) Church    Baptist Church    Society of Friends (Quakers)    Methodist Church    Congressional Church   Jehovah Witnesses     Mormons(Latter Day Saints)    Christian Scientology

mosque   minaret   synagogue   imam   mullah   rabbi      AH= Anno Hijra (migration)= 622AD    Anno Domin=AD=in the year of Lord    Mecca   Medina   Jerusalem (Al-Aqsa)    Jihad   Hezbollah  Hamas  fatwa   Islamic funds (ethical funds)  Imam (leader of Shiite)     People of the Book (Jews and Christians)  

***古老宗教與現代世界的適應問題 Church and State   Mosque and State    Religion and Modern Ethics 

No                  virgin birth, original sin, resurrection                                Yes                                        

<------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------->                   

 No                        second coming, Judgement Day                           Yes

<     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- >                                           

   No                                         secular government imposing a tithe                        Yes    

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 secular                                semi-religious                                   religious

<------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------->

Separation of church and state                                              theocracy  hagiocracy

<------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------->

                                      clergymen paid by gov.

  modernism              semi-modernism         moderate       fundamentalism

 <-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------->

  penal and civil codes for all                                                                          sharia for  all

<----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------->

                                sharia  for all Muslim and others for others 

Example: Turkey:

Turks against Tang dynasty, Anatolia, sacking eastern Roman empire 1453,  Ottoman Empire,   War (1853–56) between Russia and the allied powers of England, France, Turkey, and Sardinia,  WWI at the wrong side,  The Battle of Gallipoli took place at Gallipoli peninsula in Turkey from April 1915 to December 1915, the First World War,  Lawrence of the Arabia,  1918 partition and resistance, Mustafa Kemal defeating Greece and Armenia, 1923 Ataturk,  Republic of Turkey,  secularization,  Romanization, dearabianization,   WWII neutral, 1952 Nato,  1978 invading Cyprus,  2002 AK (adalet ve kalkinma partisi) graped the power,  2003 talks on membership of EU, Erdogan premiership 12 years and first popularly elected president 2014, authoritarian, pro-Islam   

State  Nationality   Ethnicity 

Israel  Israeli  Israeli Jews  Israeli Arabs  Israeli Palestinians    Egyptian Jews    Egyptian Arabs    Iraq     Iraqi   Iraqi Jews   Syria    

Syrian  Syrian Jews   Turkey  Turk  Turkic  Turkish   Turkish Jews    American Jews    British Jews   American Arabs    Canadian Arabs    Germany   German   German Jews   German Turks    Saudi Arabia   Saudi Arabian Bedouin     Saudi Arabian    Fellahin   Jordan  Jordanian Bedouin   Jordanian Palestinians

***Splitting Islam, Sectarianism:伊斯蘭的分裂與教派

 *遜尼 Sunni: orthodox, most countries in the Islamic world, piously embracing Koran and Sunna; (Saudi Arabia’s Wahhabism=Puritanism in Christianity)

*什葉 Shiite, Shia: heterodox--Ali  (90% Iran, 30% Lebanon, 30% Iraq ), Ayatollah Khomeini, Islamic Revolution in Iran, 1979,  hagiolatry, ultimate return of mystic Imam; temporary marriage

*蘇菲 Sufi: Mysticism, Dervish (tourism in Turkey Egypt)

***Caliph 哈利發: Successor to the Priest Mohammad

守正道哈利發 Rashidun Caliphs, Rightly Guided Caliphs:

Recognized by Sunni:

1.Abu Bakr(632-634);

2.Umar ibn al-Khattab((634-644);

3.Uthman ibn Affan(644-656);

4.Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661: son in law of Mohammad and husband of Fatimid, a daughter of Mohammad); During this period, however, Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan (Muawiyah I) and Amr ibn al-As (Arabic commander conquering Egypt in 640) controlled the Levant and Egypt regions independently of Ali;

5.Al-Hasan (eldest son of Ali.);

Recognized by Shiite:

1. Ali;

2. Al-Hasan

Conflicts:大衝突與分裂；以懲辦兇徒為藉口的權位之爭

The fourth Caliph Ali's inability to punish the murderers of Uthman and Muawiyahs 替代能源愈來愈多, refusal to pledge allegiance eventually led to Ali moved his army north to confront Muawiyah. The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Neither side wanted to fight. The majority of Ali's followers supported arbitration. Every time Ali tried to

negotiate the Qurra and the Sabait started wars and launched night attacks, fearing that if there was peace, then they will be arrested.  

The estimated casualties were that Ali's forces lost 25,000, while Muawiyah's forces lost 45,000.

**伍麥葉王朝哈利發 Umayyad Caliphs

 Muawiyah I (602–680, reign 661-680) established the Umayyad Dynasty of the Caliphate and was the second caliph from the Umayyad clan, the first being Uthman ibn Affan. Muawiyah was politically adept in dealing with the Eastern Roman Empire and was therefore made into a secretary by Muhammad. During the first and second caliphates of Abu Bakr and Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab), he fought with the Muslims against the Byzantines in Syria.

 'Yazīd ibn Mu‘āwiya ibn Abī Sufyān (647–683, reign 680-683), commonly known as Yazid I, was the second Caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate (and the first one through inheritance). Yazid was the Caliph as appointed by his father Muawiyah I. Upon succession, Yazid asked Governors of all provinces to take an oath of allegiance to him. The necessary oath was secured from all parts of the country. Husayn (Hussein) ibn Ali (a son of Ali and Fatimid; younger brother of Hasan bin Ali, grandson of Muhammad) and Abdullah ibn Zubayr (grandson of Abu Bakr) refused to declare allegiance.

 ***卡巴拉戰役 The Battle of Karbala 什葉派聖地與殉道者

The place on Muharram 10, in the year 61 AH of the Islamic calendar  (October 10, 680) in Karbala. The battle was between a small group of supporters and relatives of Muhammad's grandson Hussein ibn Ali, and a much larger military detachment from the forces of Yazid I, the Umayyad caliph, to whom Hussein had refused to give an oath of allegiance. Hussein and all his supporters were killed, including Hussein's six-month-old infant son, Ali al-Asghar ibn Husayn, with the women and children taken as prisoners. The dead are regarded as martyrs by both Sunni and Shia Muslims, and the battle has a central place in Shia history and tradition and has frequently been recounted in Shia Islamic literature.

***穆斯林朝代 Muslim Dynasties

 白衣大食，伍麥葉王朝: Caliphs of Damascus (661–750);後白衣大食Emirs of Córdoba(756–929); Caliphs of Córdoba(929–1031);

黑衣大食，阿拔斯王朝 Abbasid Caliphs: Caliphs of Baghdad (749–1258); Caliphs of Cairo (1261–1517)；

綠衣大食，法蒂瑪王朝 Fatimid caliphs（909-1171)：in Tunisia before 973;  Starting from 973 in Cairo;

阿摩哈王朝 Almohad Caliphs (1145–1269)，in Southern Spain and West Northern Africa；

鄂圖曼突厥蘇丹兼哈利發，Ottoman Sultans / Caliphs (1453–1924)in Istnabul；

 伊斯蘭國哈利發 Islamic State Caliphate(2014–present) On 29 June 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant was renamed the Islamic State and Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi was named its Caliph, using his actual name, Ibrahim. The validity of this caliphate is highly contested, as it is not recognized by any country or international organization (such as the UN) as a legitimate political entity.

***Imam: leader of Shiitte 伊瑪目：

In the Shi'a context, Imam is not only presented as the man of God par excellence but as participating fully in the names, attributes and acts that theology usually reserves for God alone. Imams have a meaning more central to belief, referring to leaders of the community. Twelver and Ismaili Shi'a believe that these imams are chosen by God to be perfect examples for the faithful and to lead all humanity in all aspects of life. They also believe that all the imams chosen are free from committing any sin, impeccability which is called ismah. These leaders must be followed since they are appointed by God.

伊斯蘭什葉派內部對於最高領袖伊瑪目的繼承與認定有糾紛，因而又分裂為十二伊瑪目派 Twlevers（伊朗為主）、七伊瑪目派Seveners（伊斯馬儀派 Ismaili Shi'a），五伊瑪目派 Fivers (宰德派 Zaidism，葉門最多）

十二伊瑪目派Twlevers（年代為任職期間）: （註：阿拉伯語 bin=son of ; 希伯來語ben)

1. Ali ibn Abu Talib(as Imam: 632-661);

2. Hassan ibn Ali(661-670);

3. Husayn(Hussein) ibn Ali(670-680);

4. Ali ibn al-Hussein(680-712);

5. Muhammad ibn Ali(712-733);

6. Ja'far ibn Muhammad(733-765);

7. Musa ibn Ja'far(765-799);

8. Ali ibn Musa(799-819);

9. Muhammad ibn Ali(819-835);

10. Ali ibn Muhammad (835-868);

11.Hassan ibn Ali(868-874);

12. Muhammad ibn al-Hassan

(馬赫迪－救世主，隱身的伊瑪目，再出現時就是末日審判，他會拯救穆斯林；al-Mahdi, Hidden Imam, 868-->??)

七伊瑪目派、伊斯馬儀派Ismaili Shi'a:

believe that Ismā'īl ibn Jaʻfar was the seventh and the last Imām (hereditary leader of the Muslim community in the direct line of ʻAlī ibn Abī Tālib). They believed his son, Muħammad ibn Ismā'īl al-Maktum, would return and bring about an age of justice as Mahdi. Their most famous and active branch were the Qarmatians(Those Who Wrote in Small Letters).

1. Ali ibn Abu Talib(as Imam: 632-661); (as Caliph recognized by Sunni:656-661); 

2. Hasan ibn `Ali ibn Abi Ṭalib(661-669);  

3. Al-Ḥusayn(Hussein) ibn ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib(669-680); 

4. Ali ibn al-Hussein(680-713), 獲尊稱為Zayn al-Abedin (the jewel of worshippers);

5. Muḥammad ibn ‘Alī al-Bāqir(713-733); 

6. Ja`far ibn Muḥammad al-Ṣādiq(733-765); 

7.Ismāʿīl ibn Ja‘far al-Mubārak(765-775);  Muhammad ibn Ismāʿīl(761-809; Mahid, Hidden Imam)

五伊瑪目派認定的伊瑪目：（葉門為主）

1. Ali ibn Abu Talib(as Imam: 632-661); (as Caliph recognized  by Sunni:656-661); 

2. Hasan ibn `Ali ibn Abi Ṭalib(661-669);  

3. Al-Ḥusayn(Hussein) ibn ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib(669-680); 

4. Ali ibn al-Hussein(680-713), 獲尊稱為Zayn al-Abedin (the jewel of worshippers);

5. Zayd ibn ‘Alī (Zaid, Zayyed, Sa‘id or Sajjad(713-740)

 ***Marriage Now in Islamic  World 

Mostly arranged by father and prospective husband with bride money no less than 3000 $ now around Gulf states as a contract.  

Monogamy for ordinary people but polygyny with no more than four wives for rich and powerful ones; the modern civil code will stipulate that when taking the second wife, whether the first wife can ask for a divorce or not.

Repeating “I divorce you” three times before witnesses (talaq) without paying any alimony. Wife actively asking for divorce has to return bride money and a big sum of ransom normally regarded a shame by the family

Honor killing: in remote areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan  

Male Muslim can marry women belonging to the people of the Book(Jews and Christians). 

Female Muslim can only marry Male Muslim

A very special and convenient marriage:什葉派中的十二伊瑪目派有一種很特別的暫時婚制度： temporary marriage; Nikāḥ al-Mutʿah ," is a type of marriage used in Twelver Shia Islam, where the duration of the marriage and the dowry must be specified and agreed upon in advance. It is a private contract made in a verbal or written format. A declaration of the intent to marry and an acceptance of the terms are required (as they are in nikah (marriage in Islam). al-Mutʿah marriage was also practiced by the pre-Islamic Arabs.  The practice is often viewed as a cover for promiscuity or prostitution.At the end of the contract, the marriage ends and the wife must undergo iddah (a period of abstinence from sexual intercourse, usually the length of two menstrual cycles).  Generally, the Nikah mut'ah has no prescribed minimum or maximum duration.暫時婚持續時間可能三天、三周、三月、三年不等，結束後男子可立即另結新的暫時婚，但女子必須經過兩個經期且無性行為的階段，才可以另結新的暫時婚。其他教派抨擊這種制度使雜交與賣淫合法化，使什葉派教士在遠行時可以一直輪替性伴侶，而且這種婚制必須向教士登記或註銷，使他們靠收手續費就富裕的不得了。

***猶太教與猶太傳統的恪守程度分別

 Judaism

Secular Modernist                                                                     Orthodox         Ultra-Orthodox

<------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------>     

                           Traditionally observant            Conservative

Ultra-Orthodox= haredi;

Orthodox= dati;

Conservative=masorti; Traditionally observant, not as dogmatic as the orthodox;

Secular Modernist= hiloni;

More than half of all Israelis describe themselves as hiloni (secular). About 15-20 percent describe themselves as haredi (ultra-Orthodox) or dati (Orthodox). The rest describe themselves as masorti (traditionally observant, but not as dogmatic as the Orthodox). It is important to remember, however, that the masorti and hiloni of Israel tend to be more observant than their counterparts in America. For example, the hiloni of Israel often observe some traditional practices in a limited way, such as lighting Shabbat candles, limiting their activities on Shabbat, or keeping kosher to some extent, all of which are rare among American Reform Jews, and unheard of among American Jews

who describe themselves as secular.

未完待續

增進字彙的最快方式：《WOW!字彙源來如此：社會篇》

字彙源來如此--社會篇

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